Recovery from Brain Damage

I: The Domain of Brain-Lesion Research.- 1 The Logic of the Lesion Experiment and Its Role in the Neural Sciences.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Conceptual and Methodological Problems: What Is a “Function”?.- 3. Reductionism and Metaphor in Physiological Psychology.- 4. The Surprising Source of Metaphors Used in Studying the Brain.- 5. Are Brains More or Less Easy to Analyze than Machines?.- 6. How to Infer Function from Behavioral Data (on Double Dissociation and Beyond).- 7. The Necessity of Theory.- 8. Perceiving Complex Systems.- 9. How to Pamper Your Perceptual System.- 10. The Qualitative Nature of Investigation.- 11. Emergence.- 12. References.- II: Species Variables.- 2 Generalizations in Neuropsychology.- 1. Class-Common Behavior.- 2. Class-Common Neural Mechanisms.- 3. Some Evidence for Class-Common Neural Mechanisms.- 3.1. The Phylogeny of Mammalian Vision.- 3.2. Ablation of Auditory Cortex.- 3.3. Encephalization of Motor Functions.- 3.4. The Frontal Cortex and Learning by Rats.- 3.5. Cerebral Asymmetry in Monkeys.- 4. Species-Specific Neural Mechanisms.- 5. Summary.- 6. References.- 3 The Interplay of Experimental and Clinical Approaches in Brain Lesion Research.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Cortical Localization of Visual Function.- 2.1. Ferrier, Munk, and the Clinicians.- 2.2. Precise Localization of the Visual Center.- 2.3. Visual Agnosia.- 3. The Method of Double Sensory Stimulation.- 3.1. Jacques Loeb.- 3.2. Clinical Application.- 4. Concluding Comments.- 5. References.- III: Anatomical Response to CNS Injury.- 4 Lesion Experiments: Some Anatomical Considerations.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Anatomical Organization of the Brain: General Considerations.- 3. Gross Anatomical Considerations.- 4. Neuronal Response to Injury.- 5. Supporting Cell Response to Injury.- 6. Interpretive Problems.- 7. Summary and Comments.- 8. References.- 5 Brain Lesions: Induction, Analysis, and the Problem of Recovery of Function.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Induction of Lesions.- 2.1. Electrolytic Lesions.- 2.2. Mechanical Lesions.- 2.3. Chemical Lesions.- 3. Analysis of Neurological Effects of Lesions.- 3.1. Histological Analysis.- 3.2. Neurochemical Analysis.- 4. Recovery of Function: A Problem in the Analysis of Lesions.- 5. Summary.- 6. References.- IV: Experimental Manipulations and Behavioral Recovery.- 6 Age, Brain Damage, and Performance.- 1. Age-Brain Damage Relationships.- 1.1. The Age Factor.- 1.2. Mechanisms of Recovery.- 1.3. Regional Brain Differences.- 1.4. Delayed Effects Following Brain Damage.- 2. Selected Studies of Age-Brain Damage Relationships.- 2.1. Decortication during Infancy.- 2.2. Subcortical Destruction during Infancy.- 2.3. Early Spinal Transection.- 3. The Future: Age-Brain Damage Relationships.- 3.1. Overview.- 3.2. Research Considerations.- 4. References.- 7 Lesion Momentum and Behavior.- 1. Clinical Observations.- 2. Animal Models.- 3. The Range of Serial-Lesion Effects.- 4. Prerequisite Conditions and Associated Factors.- 4.1. Duration of Interlesion Interval.- 4.2. Size of Each Serial Lesion.- 4.3. Ordering of the Lesions.- 4.4. Interoperative Testing and Training.- 4.5. Environmental and Pharmacological Effects.- 4.6. Postoperative Recovery Period.- 4.7. Age at Time of Surgery.- 4.8. Task Difficulty.- 4.9. Cortical versus Subcortical Structures.- 4.10. Species Differences.- 5. Neural Basis of Sparing and Recovery.- 6. Present and Future.- 7. References.- 8 Time and Recovery from Brain Damage.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Correlates of Recovery.- 2.1. Time and Stimulation.- 2.2. Time as a Correlative Frame of Reference.- 2.3. Recoveries, Deficits, and Diaschisis.- 2.4. Reversible Processes in Long-Term Recovery.- 2.5. Conclusions.- 3. The Limits of Recovery: Methodological Considerations.- 3.1. Definitions.- 3.2. Two Consequences of Brain Damage.- 3.3. Confounding Time and Experience.- 3.4. Crowding the Limits: Long-Term Experiments.- 3.5. Criterial and Continuous Performance Measures.- 3.6. Time-Defined Sequelae of Recovery.- 4. Summary and Concluding Remarks.- 5. References.- 9 Testing Procedures and the Interpretation of Behavioral Data.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 3. Definitions of Stimulus and Response.- 3.1. The Stimulus.- 3.2. The Response.- 4. Level of Training.- 5. Level of Performance.- 6. Final Comments.- 7. References.- 10 Subtotal Lesions: Implications for Coding and Recovery of Function.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Some “Nonsensory” Examples.- 3. Sensory Systems: Vision.- 3.1. Afferent Pathways.- 3.2. Organization of Central Visual Pathways.- 3.3. Geniculocortical System.- 3.4. Extrageniculostriate Visual System.- 3.5. Summary and Conclusions.- 4. Sensory Systems: Somesthesis.- 4.1. Peripheral Inputs.- 4.2. Afferent Pathways.- 4.3. Forebrain Areas.- 4.4. Summary and Conclusions.- 5. Sensory Function: Audition.- 5.1. Frequency Discrimination.- 5.2. Localization.- 5.3. Conclusions.- 6. General Conclusions.- 7. References.- 11 Pharmacological Modification of Brain Lesion Syndromes.- 1. Methodological Considerations.- 2. Lateral Hypothalamic Syndrome.- 3. Unilateral Nigrostriatal Lesions and Rotation.- 4. Lesions of the Medial Forebrain Bundle and Hyperalgesia.- 5. Septal-Rage Syndrome.- 6. Changes in Drug Sensitivity after Frontal Cortical Lesions.- 7. Degree of Functional Recovery and Amphetamine Sensitivity.- 8. Facilitation of Serial-Stage Savings.- 9. Clinical Implications.- 10. References.- 12 Environmental Attenuation of Brain-Lesion Symptoms.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Anatomical and Biochemical Correlates of Different Rearing Conditions.- 3. Rearing Conditions and Problem-Solving Performance.- 4. Environmental Modification of Brain-Lesion Syndromes: Empirical Findings.- 4.1. Prelesion Enrichment and Performance.- 4.2. Postlesion Enrichment and Performance.- 4.3. Interlesion Enrichment and Performance.- 5. Analysis of Brain-Lesion Studies.- 5.1. Task Variables.- 5.2. Environmental Variables.- 5.3. Surgical Variables.- 5.4. Species Variables.- 5.5. Comment.- 6. Theoretical Formulations.- 6.1. Behavioral Models.- 6.2. Anatomical Models.- 7. Conclusions.- 8. References.- 13 Sensory Restriction and Recovery of Function.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Effects of Deprivation.- 2.1. Functional Attributes of the Normal Adult and Neonatal Inexperienced Visual Cortex.- 2.2. Deprivation Experiments.- 3. Recovery of Function.- 3.1. Behavioral Recovery.- 3.2. Physiological Recovery.- 4. Conclusions.- 5. References.- V: Accounting for Sparing and Restitution.- 14 Recovery after Brain Damage and the Concept of Localization of Function.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Problems of Definition.- 1.2. Recovery and Sparing.- 2. Structural Explanations of Recovery.- 2.1. Redundancy.- 2.2. Multiple Control.- 3. Process Approaches to Recovery.- 3.1. Functional Substitution.- 3.2. Plasticity, Radical Reorganization, and Reorganizational Compensation.- 4. Physiological Processes and Recovery.- 4.1. Diaschisis and Restitution of Function.- 4.2. Regenerative and Collateral Sprouting.- 4.3. “Relatively Inefficient” Synapses.- 4.4. Denervation Supersensitivity.- 5. Localization and Recovery of Function.- 6. Concluding Remarks.- 7. References.- 15 Is Seeing Believing: Notes on Clinical Recovery.- 1. Cross-Cuing in the Split Brain.- 1.1. Somesthesia.- 1.2. Visual Functions.- 2. The Neurological Patient.- 2.1. Disorder in Manipulo-Spatial Skills.- 2.2. Disorders in Language.- 3. Summary.- 4. References.