Biomarkers

1. Applications and Objectives of Biomarker Research.- 1.1. Introduction.- 1.2. Definitions.- 1.3. Objectives of Biomarker Programs.- 1.4. Applications of Biomarker Programs.- 1.5. Rationale for the use of Biomarkers.- 1.6. Current Limitations in the use of Biomarkers.- 1.7. Future of Biomarkers in Environmental Assessment.- 1.8. Literature Cited.- 2. The Conceptual Basis of the Biomarker Approach.- 2.1. Introduction.- 2.2. Dose-Response Relationships.- 2.3. Physiological Alterations as a Basis for Biomarkers.- 2.4. Considerations in the use of Biomarkers.- 2.5. Future Prospects.- 2.6. Literature Cited.- 3. Implementation of Biomarker-Based Studies.- 3.1. Introduction.- 3.2. Selection and Characterization of Study Sites.- 3.3. Selection of Species.- 3.4. Biomarker Selection.- 3.5. Sampling Methodology.- 3.6. Analysis.- 3.7. Summary.- 3.8. Literature Cited.- 4. Interpretation of Biomarker Responses.- 4.1. Introduction.- 4.2. Biological Interpretation of Biomarkers.- 4.3. Statistical and Mathematical Techniques for Interpretation.- 4.4. Societal Interpretations.- 4.5. Literature Cited.- 5. Development and Validation of Biomarkers.- 5.1. Introduction.- 5.2. The Ideal Biomarker.- 5.3. Development of new Biomarkers.- 5.4. Validation.- 5.5. Literature Cited.- 6. Conceptual Strategy for Development and Application of a Biomarker-Based Biomonitoring Program.- 6.1. Definition of Study Objectives.- 6.2. General Elements of a Biomarker-Based Biomonitoring Study.- 6.3. Tailoring Study Design for Specific Objectives.- 6.4. Development of Biomarkers: Laboratory and Field Studies.- 6.5. Literature Cited.