Intercultural competences

Part 1 What is culture? 11
1 Dynamic definition of culture 13
1.1 Introduction 13
1.2 Culture is connected to a group 15
1.3 Culture is learned 17
1.4 Culture is relative 19
1.5 Culture gives meaning 21
1.6 Inside the comfort zone: looking through cultural glasses 27
1.7 Outside the comfort zone: confronting values 29
Summary 33
Questions and exercises 34

2 Where does culture come from? 37
2.1 Introduction 37
2.2 Universal dilemmas and basic assumptions 39
2.3 The evolution of cultures 42
2.4 Layers of culture 45
2.5 The onion of culture 47
Summary 50
Questions and exercises 51

3 Cultural identity 53
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Cultural software for the brain 55
3.3 Subcultures 58
3.4 Featured subcultures 60
3.5 Stereotyping 65
3.6 Country cultures 74
Summary 76
Questions and exercises 77

Part 2 Acquiring knowledge: the science behind interculturality 79
4 Measuring cultures 81
4.1 Introduction 81
4.2 History of intercultural communication 83
4.3 Why cultural diversity? 85
4.4 Preventing cultural exclusion (inclusivity) 88
4.5 Choices in dealing with other cultures 91
4.6 What do we measure? 93
Summary 96
Questions and exercises 97

5 Intercultural theories 99
5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 Model of Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck 100
5.3 Model of Hall 102
5.4 The model of Geert Hofstede 106
5.5 Other scientific models 108
5.6 Anecdotal models 113
Summary 116
Questions and exercises 117

Part 3 Practical application of intercultural models 119
6 Working with the model of Geert Hofstede 121
6.1 Introduction 121
6.2 Cultural dimensions 124
6.3 Power distance 124
6.4 Individualism or collectivism 128
6.5 Femininity or masculinity: assertive or modest 132
6.6 Uncertainty avoidance 136
6.7 Long-term or short-term orientation 141
6.8 Indulgence or restraint 144
6.9 Model of Hofstede applied to the Vietnam internship report 146
Summary 150
Questions and exercises 152

7 Working with the model of Dingemans & Janssen 155
7.1 Introduction 155
7.2 A model of cultural identity 157
7.3 Background of the model 158
7.4 Clearly visible communication styles 163
7.5 Hidden communication styles 163
7.6 Professional values 164
7.7 Basic values 165
7.8 Model of Dingemans & Janssen applied to the
Equador internship report 165
Summary 167
Questions and exercises 168

Part 4 Intercultural competences in practice 171
8 First contact: Culture shock 173
8.1 Introduction 173
8.2 Communication: coding and decoding 175
8.3 Intercultural communication 177
8.4 Culture shock process 177
8.5 Recognizing a culture shock 182
8.6 How to deal with the reflex reactions of a culture shock? 186
Summary 189
Questions and exercises 190

9 Lifelong learning: developing an intercultural personality 193
9.1 Introduction 193
9.2 Intercultural sensitivity 195
9.3 Developing intercultural sensitivity: Bennett’s model 196
9.4 Increasing intercultural sensitivity 203
9.5 Going through Bennett’s model: from denial to integration 204
9.6 The four phases of learning 205
9.7 Taking perspectives 207
Summary 211
Questions and exercises 213

10 Hidden meanings in cultural communication 215
10.1 Introduction 215
10.2 The cultural iceberg 217
10.3 Examples of hidden meanings 218
Summary 229
Questions and exercises 231

11 Dealing with cultural conflicts 233
11.1 Introduction 233
11.2 Definition of conflict 235
11.3 Engaging in a cultural conflict 236
11.4 Let go of assumptions 238
11.5 Conducting the cultural dialogue 241
Summary 245
Questions and exercises 247

Bibliography 250
About the author 253
Index 254
Acknowledgements 257